Section 6.1 lists sources that raise ethical and social issues in artificial or virtual reality (VR). (While this topic has not received widespread treatment in the computer ethics literature, I believe that ethical issues arising from the use of VR technology warrant careful examination.) Section 6.2 includes sources that identify moral issues in artificial intelligence (AI) and expert systems. Although several of the entries in this section have come to be identified with theoretical aspects of symbolic AI, neural networks, and expert systems, these sources also address many ethical and social concerns that arise out of AI. For example, some of these works address the question whether the goals of AI are "proper" or ethical. Other works raise questions about the locus of moral responsibility for decisions made by expert systems. Sources that examine AI and expert systems from the vantagepoints of robotics, income, and employment are listed in Section 6.3.

4.1.1 Artificial or VIRTUAL REALITY (VR)

Antoff, Michael. "Living in a Virtual World," Popular Science, June 1993, p. 124.

Aukstakalnis, Steve and David Blatner. Silicon Mirage: The Art and Science of Virtual Reality. Berkeley, CA: PeachPit, Press, 1992.

Bacard, Andre. "Welcome to Virtual Reality," The Humanist, March/April 1993, pp. 42-43.

Baudrillard, Jean. SIMULATIONS. NY: Columbia Press, 1983.

Bylinsky, Gene. "The Marvels of Virtual Reality," Fortune, Vol. 3, June 1991, pp. 142-143.

Carey, John, Joan Hamilton, Gary Williams, Evan Schwartz, and Emily Smith. "Virtual Reality: How a Computer-Generated World Could Change the Real World," Business Week, October 5, 1992, pp. 96-103.

Cooper, Claire. "When Justice Starts Watching Videos: Computer Animation Newest Way To Make Point In Courtroom," Sacramento Bee, January 4, 1993, p. A1.

Corliss, Richard. "Virtual Man!," Time, November 1, 1993, pp. 80-83.

Dvorak, John C. "America, Are You Ready for Simulated Sex and Virtual Reality?," PC Computing, May 1992, p. 78.

Heeter, Carrie. "Gender Differences and VR," Virtual Reality World, March/April, 1994.

Hime, Michael. The Metaphysics of Virtual Reality. NY: Oxford University Press, 1993.

Holtzman, Steven. Digital Mantras: The Languages of Abstract and Virtual Worlds. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994.

Hohne, K. H. et al. "A 'Virtual Body' Model fro Surgical Education and Rehearsal," IEEE Computer, Vol. 29, No. 1, January 1996, pp. 25-31.

Hsu, Jeffrey. "Virtual Reality," Compute, February 1993, pp. 100-104.

Kallman, Ernest and John Grillo. "Virtual Success: Virtual-Reality Games Invade the Real World," Case 18 in Ethical Decision Making: An Introduction with Cases. NY: McGraw Hill, 1993, pp. 123-126.

Keene, Linda. "Tripping: Blurring the Line Between Parallel Realities," The Seattle Times September 27, 1992, p. 10.

Kelly, William and Patrick Kinsella. "Virtual Reality and Disabilities," Contemporary Review, Vol. 265, 1994, p. 234.

Lamson, Ralph. "Virtual Therapy," The Boston Globe, January 30, 1995, pp. 25, 29.

Laurel, Brenda. Computers as Theater. Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley, 1991.

Mitchell, David H. "Being Here and Being There," Byte, March 1993, p. 132.

Negroponte, Nicholas. "20/20 VR," Chap. 9 in Being Digital. NY: Alfred Knopf, Inc., 1995.

Pagels, Heinz. The Dreams of Reason. NY: Simon and Schuster, 1988.

Peterson, Ivars. "Looking-Glass Worlds: Learning to Assemble the Machinery of Illusion," Science News, January 4, 1992, pp. 8-10;15.

Pimentel, Ken and Kevin Texeira. Virtual Reality: Through the New Looking Glass. NY: McGraw Hill, 1993.

Pruitt, S. and T. Barrett. "Corporate Virtual Workspace," in M. Benedikt, ed. Cyberspace: First Steps. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991, pp. 383-409.

Rheingold, Howard. "Teledildonics and Beyond," Chap. 16 in Virtual Reality. NY: Touchstone Books, 1991.

Skurzynski, Gloria. "The Best of (Virtual) Worlds: What Will Become of Today's New Technology," School Library Journal, October, 1993, pp. 37-40.

Steadman, Nancy. "Field of Dreams: Virtual Reality Systems Launch Video on a Daring New Quest for Total Immersion," Video Magazine, May 1991, pp. 30-33.

Stix, Gary. "Reach Out: Touch is Added to Virtual Reality Simulations," Scientific American, February 1991, p. 134.

Stone, Judith. "Turn on, Tune in, Boot up," Discover, June 1991, pp. 32-34.

Vogel, Shawna. "Smart Skin," Discover, April 1980.

Whitby, Blay. "The Virtual Sky is not the Limit: Ethics in VR," Intelligent Tutoring Media, February 1993, pp. 23-28.

Wooley, Benjamin. Virtual Worlds: A Journey in Hype and Hyperreality. NY: Blackwell, 1992.

Zeltzer, David. "Virtual Environments: Where Are We Going," in Directions and Implications of Advanced Computing 1990 (DIAC '90) Symposium Proceedings, ed. Doug Schuler, Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility (CPSR), 2nd. ed., 1992, pp. 230-242.

Achinstein, Philip. "The Impact of Explanations Facilities on User Acceptance of Expert Systems Advice," MIS Quarterly, June 1995, pp. 76-85.

Assimov, Isaac, Patricia Warrick and Martin Greenberg, eds. Machines That Think. NY: Penquin, 1985.

Barrett, William. The Death of the Soul: From Descartes to the Computer. NY: Anchor Press, 1986.

Bates, J. "The Role of Emotion in Believable Agents," Communications of the ACM, Vol. 37, No. 7, 1994, pp. 122-125.

Berkeley, Edmund. Giant Brains Or Machines that Think. NY: Science Foundations, Inc., 1961.

Berry, Dianne and Anna Hart, eds. Expert Systems: Human Issues. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990.

Beulens, A. M. and V. E. Nunen. "The Use of Expert System Technology in DDS," Decision Support Systems, No. 4, 1988, pp. 421-431.

Blois, Marsden S. "Clinical Judgment and Computers," New England Journal Of Medicine, Vol. 303, No. 4, April 1980, 192-197.

Boden, Margaret A. Artificial Intelligence and Natural Man. NY: Basic Books, 1977.

Boden, Margaret A. The Philosophy of Artificial Intelligence. NY: Oxford University Press, 1990.

Boden, Margaret. The Creative Mind: Myths and Mechanisms. London: Weidenfield and Nicolson, 1990.

Boden, Margaret A. "Artificial Intelligence as a Humanizing Force," IJCAI, Los Altos: William Kaufman, Inc., August, 1983.

Bolter, J. David. "Artificial Intelligence," Daedalus, Summer 1984.

Bolter, J. David. "Artificial Intelligence," Chap. 11 in Turing's Man: Western Culture in the Computer Age. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 1984.

Bramer, Max. "Intelligent Knowledge Based Systems," in Alan Burns, ed. New Information Technology. NY: Wiley, 1984, pp. 148-158.

Carroll, Barbara. Artificial Intelligence: Expert Systems for Clinical Diagnosis: Are They Worth the Effort," in C. Huff and T. Finholt, eds. Social Issues in Computing. NY: McGraw Hill, 1994, pp. 247-272.

Charniak, E. Introduction to Artificial Intelligence. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1985.

Collins, H. M. Artificial Experts: Social Knowledge and Intelligent Machines. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990.

Collste, Goran. "Expert Systems in Medicine and Moral Responsibility," Journal of System Software, Vol. 17, 1992, pp. 19-24.

Copeland, Jack. Artificial Intelligence. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1993.

Crosson, Frederick J., ed. Human and Artificial Intelligence. NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1970.

Dreyfus, Hubert. What Computers Still Can't Do -- A Critique of Artificial Reason. 2nd ed. NY: Harper and Row, 1992.

Dreyfus, Hubert and Stuart Dreyfus. Mind Over Machine: The Power of Human Intuition and Expertise in the Era of the Computer. NY: Basil Blackwell, 1986.

Dreyfus, Hubert and Stuart Dreyfus. "Making a Mind Versus Modeling the Brain: Artificial Intelligence Back at a Branch-Point," Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 117, No. 1, Winter 1988. Reprinted in A. Boden. The Philosophy of Artificial Intelligence. NY: Oxford Press, 1990, pp. 309-333.

Epstein, Richard. "Noah, the Ark, and the Turing Test," Computers and Society, Vol. 26, No. 2, June 1996, pp. 16-21.

Flint, Anthony. "Artificial Intelligence Evolves," The Boston Globe, March 18, 1995, pp. 1, 6.

Folssom, Tyler. "The Search for an 'Electronic Brain': An Introduction to Natural Networks," in R. Dejoie et al., eds. Ethical Issues in Information Systems, Boston. MA: Boyd and Fraser, 1991, pp. 295-304.

Forester, Tom and Perry Morrison. "Ethical Issues: Is AI A Proper Goal?," in Computer Ethics: Cautionary Tales and Ethical Dilemmas in Computing. 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994, pp. 184-189.

Forsyth, Richard, ed. Expert Systems: Principles and Case Studies. NY: Chapman and Hall, 1984.

Forsyth, Richard. "The Anatomy of Expert Systems," in Masoud Yazdani and Ajet Narayanan, eds. Artificial Intelligence: Human Effects. Chichester, UK: Ellis Horwood, 1984, pp. 186-189.

Frost, R. A. Introduction to Knowledge Base Systems. UK: William Collins Sons and Co., 1986.

Gill, T. Grandon. "A Note on Expert Systems," Harvard Business School Publications, 1988.

Graubard, Stephen R., ed. The Artificial Intelligence Debate: False Starts, Real Foundations. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988.

Hardison, O. B. "Disappearing Through the Skylight," in A. Teich, ed. Technology and the Future. 6th ed. NY: St. Martin's Press, 1993, pp. 15-29.

Haugeland, John. Artificial Intelligence: The Very Idea. 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990.

Hayesworth, F., D. Waterman and D. Lenat. Building Expert Systems. Reading, MA: Addison-Wessley, 1983.

Hillis, W. Daniel. "Intelligence as an Emergent Behavior; Or: The Songs of Eden," in S. R. Graubard., ed. The Artificial Debate: False Starts and Real Foundations. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988.

Hofstadter, Douglas and Daniel Dennett, eds. The Mind's I: Fantasies and Reflections on Self and Soul. NY: Basil Books, 1981.

Jahoda, Marie. "Artificial Intelligence: An Outsider's Perspective," in T. Forester, ed. Computers in the Human Context. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989, pp. 144-156.

Johnson, R. Colin and Chappell Brown. Cognizers: Neural Networks and Machines That Think. NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1988.

Kasparov, Gary. "The Day I Sensed a New Kind of Intelligence," Time, March 25, 1996, p. 55.

Kearney, G. D. and S. McKenzie. "Machine Interpretation of Emotion: Design of a Memory-Based Expert System for Interpreting Facial Expressions in Terms of Signaled Emotions," Cognitive Science, Vol. 17, 1993, pp. 589-622.

Kosko, Bart. Neural Networks and Fuzzy Systems: A Dynamic Approach to Machine Intelligence. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1992.

Kosko, Bart. Fuzzy Thinking: The New Science of Fuzzy Logic. NY: Hyperion Press, 1993.

La Chat, Michael. "Artificial Intelligence and Ethics: An Exercise in Moral Imagination," AI Magazine, Vol. 7, No. 2, 1986, pp. 70-79. Reprinted in R. Dejoie et al., eds. Ethical Issues in Information Systems. Boston, MA: Boyd and Fraser, 1991, pp. 278-294.

Levy, Steven. Artificial Life: A Report from the Frontier Where Computers Meet Biology. NY: Vantage Books, 1992.

Marcella, Albert J. "Utilizing Expert Systems to Evaluate Disaster Recovery Planning," Journal of Applied Business Research, Winter 1995, pp. 30-39.

McClintock, Alexander. ed. The Convergence of Machine and Human Nature: A Critique of the Computer Metaphor of Mind and Artificial Intelligence. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate Publishing, 1995.

McCorduck, Pamela. Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence. San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman, 1979.

McNeill, Daniel and Paul Freiberger. Fuzzy Logic. NY: Touchstone Books, 1993.

Michie, Donald. On Machine Intelligence. Chichester, UK: Ellis Horwood, 1984.

Michie, Donald and Rory Johnson. The Creative Computer: Machine Intelligence and Human Knowledge. NY: Penguin Books, 1985.

Minsky, Marvin. "Why People Think Computers Can't," AI Magazine, February 1982, pp. 3-15. Reprinted in M. Ermann et al., eds. Computers, Ethics, and Society. NY: Oxford University Press, 1990, pp., 145-166.

Minsky, Marvin. The Society of Mind. NY: Touchstone Books, 1988.

Minsky, Marvin and Seymour Papert. Perceptrons: An Introduction to Computational Geometry. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1969.

Mykytyn, Kathleen, Peter Mykytyn and Craig Slinkman. "Expert Systems: A Question of Liability?," MIS Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1990, pp. 30-37.

Osyk, Barbara and Bindiganavale S. Vijayaraman. "Integrating Expert Systems and Neural Nets," Information System Management, Spring 1995, pp. 47-55.

Oz, Effy. "Artificial Intelligence: 'It's the Expert System's Fault'," in Ethics for the Information Age. Burr Ridge, IL: Business and Educational Technologies, 1994, pp. 296-300.

Palfreman, Jon and Doron Swade. "Thinking Machines," Chap. 9 in The Dream Machine: Exploring the Computer Age. London, UK: BBC Books, 1991.

Peat, F. David. Artificial Intelligence: How Machines Think. NY: Baen Enterprises, 1985.

Penrose, Roger. The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds, and the Laws of Physics. NY: Penguin Books, 1989.

Rich, E. Artificial Intelligence. NY: McGraw Hill, 1986.

Russell, Stuart and Eric Wefald. Do the Right Thing: Studies in Limited Rationality. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996.

Searle, John. "Minds, Brains and Programs," The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, Vol. 3, 1980, pp. 417-24. Reprinted in M. Boden, ed. The Philosophy of Artificial Intelligence. NY: Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. 67-88.

Searle, John. Minds, Brains and Science. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984.

Sheil, Beau. "Thinking About Artificial Intelligence," in T. Forester, ed. Computers in the Human Context, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991, pp. 157-165.

Spinello, Richard A. "Expert Systems," in Ethical Aspects of Information Technology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1995, pp. 92-95.

Thomas, Ronert. What Machines Can't Do. University of California Press, 1994.

Turkle, Sherry. The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit. NY: Simon and Schuster, 1984.

Turkle, Sherry. "Artificial Intelligence and Psychoanalysis: A New Alliance," Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Vol. 117, No. 1, 1988, pp. 241-267. Selections reprinted in M. Ermann et al., eds. Computers, Ethics, and Society, Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. 128-145.

Von Neumann, John. The Computer and the Brain. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1958.

Waldrop, M. Mitchell. Man Made Minds: The Promise of Artificial Intelligence. NY: Walker and Company, 1987.

Warner, E. "Expert Systems and the Law," High Technology Business, October 1986, pp. 32-35.

Weizenbaum, Joseph. "Artificial Intelligence," Chap. 8 in Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to Calculation . San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman, 1976.

Weizenbaum, Joseph. "The Myths of Artificial Intelligence," New York Review, October 27, 1983. Reprinted in T. Forester, ed. The Information Technology Revolution, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985, pp. 85-94.

Wessells, Michael G. "Expert Systems," in Computer, Self, and Society. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990, pp. 173-181.

Wiener, Norbert. Cybernetics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1948.

Winograd, T. and F. Flores. Understanding Computers and Cognition: A New Foundation for Design. Norwood: Ablex Press, 1986.

Wright, Robert. "Can Machines Think?," Time, March 25, 1996, pp. 50-56.

Ayers, Robert and Steve Miller. "Industrial Robots on the Line," in T. Forester, ed. The Information Technology Revolution. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985, pp. 273-283.

Boden, Margaret A. "The Meeting of Man and the Machine," in K. P. Jones and I. Taylor, eds. The Design of Information Systems for Human Beings. London: ASLIB, 1981.

Boden, Margaret A. "The Social Impact of Thinking Machines," Futures, 1984. Reprinted in

Tom Forester, ed. The Information Technology Revolution. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985, pp. 95-103.

Boden, Margaret A. "AI and Human Freedom," in M. Yazdani and A. Narayanan, eds. Artificial Intelligence: Human Effects. Chichester, UK: Ellis Horwood, 1984.

Feigenbaum, Edward and Pamela McCorduck. The Fifth Generation: Artificial Intelligence and Japan's Computer Challenge to the World. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1983.

Feigenbaum, Edward, Pamela McCorduck and H. Peeny Nii. The Rise of the Expert Company: How Visionary Companies are using Artificial Intelligence to Achieve Higher Productivity and Profits. NY: Times Books, 1988.

Foulkes, Fred and Jeffrey Hirsch. "Robots at Work," in T. Forester, ed. The Information Technology Revolution. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985, pp. 468-479.

Forester, Tom. "The Robots Have Arrived," in High-Tech Society. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987, pp. 174-177.

Frank, Steven J. "What AI Practitioners Should Know About the Law (Part I)," AI Magazine, Vol. 9, No. 1, 1988, pp. 63-75.

Frank, Steven J. "What AI Practitioners Should Know About the Law (Part 2)," AI Magazine, Vol. 9, No. 2, 1988, pp. 109-114.

Harmon, Paul and David King. Expert Systems: Artificial Intelligence in Business. NY: Wiley, 1985.

Hirschorn, Larry. "Robots Can't Run Factories" in T. Forester, ed. Computers and the Human Context. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991, pp. 301-307.

Kelso, Louis O. and Mortimer Adler. Capitalist Manifesto. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1975.

Kozlov, Alex. "Rethinking Artificial Intelligence," High Technology Business, May, 1988, pp. 18-25.

Leibowitz, J. "Possible Impacts of Artificial Intelligence," Information Age, Vol. 11, No. 3, July 1989.

Leonard-Barton, Dorothy and John J. Sviokla. "Putting Expert Systems to Work," Harvard Business Review, Vol. 85, No. 2, March/April 1988, pp. 91-98.

Miller, S. M. "Impacts of Robotics and Flexible Manufacturing Technologies on Manufacturing Costs and Employment," in P.R. Kleindorfer, ed. Management of Productivity and Technology in Manufacturing. NY: plenum, 1985, pp. 73-110.

Nilsson, Nils. "Artificial Intelligence, Employment, and Income," AI Magazine, Summer, 1984. Reprinted in M. Ermann et al., ed. Computers, Ethics, and Society. NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 248-261

Oakley, B. W. "Impact of Expert Systems: Critical Social Issues," in T. Bernold and U. Hillenkamp, eds. Expert Systems in Production and Services. 1988, pp. 145-148.

Oz, Effy. "Human-Robot Relationships," in Ethics for the Information Age. Burr Ridge, IL: Business and Educational Technologies, 1994, pp. 303-305.

Perrolle, Judith. "Intellectual Assembly Lines: The Rationalization of Managerial, Professional, and Technical Work," in C. Dunlop and R. Kling, eds. Computerization and Controversy, San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1991, pp. 221-235.

Robb, Richard A; Hanson, Dennis B., and John J. Camp. "Computer-Aided Surgery Planning and Rehearsal at Mayo Clinic," IEEE Computer, Vol. 29, No. 1, January 1996, pp. 39-47.

Robinson, William S. "The Ill-Connected Robot," Chap. 11 in Computers, Minds and Robots. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1992.

Rosenberg, Richard. "Robotics and Industrial Organization," Chap. 12 in The Social Impact of Computing. Boston. MA: Academic Press, 1992.

Sagheb-Tehrani, Mehdi. "The Technology of Expert Systems: Some Social Impacts," Computers and Society, Vol. 23, Nos. 1-2, July 1993, pp. 15-19.

Schefe, P. "The Impacts of Expert Systems on Working Life -- An Assessment," AI & Society, Vol. 4, 1990, pp. 183-195.

Sviokla, J. J. "An Examination of the Impact of Expert Systems on the Firm: The Case of XCON," MIS Quarterly, Vol. 14, 1990, pp. 127-140. Reprinted in C. Huff and T. Finholt, eds. Social Issues in Computing. NY: McGraw Hill, 1994, pp. 228-246.

Weitz, R. R. "Technology Work and the Organization: The Impact of Expert Systems," AI Magazine, Summer 1990, pp. 50-60.

Wessells, Michael G. "Information, Technology, and Economics," in Computer, Self, and Society. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990, pp. 75-82.

Wiig, K. M. "Commercial Applications," in T. Bernold and U. Hillenkamp, eds. Expert Systems in Production and Services, NH, 1988.

Winston, Patrick H. and Karen A. Prendergrast, eds. The AI Business: Commercial Uses of Artificial Intelligence. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984.

Wright, Paul Kenneth and David Alan Bourne. Manufacturing Intelligence. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1988.

Yick, T. L. and T. H. Phuong. "Management Expert Systems for Competitive Advantage in Business," Information and Management, Vol. 18, No. 4, 1990, pp. 195-201.

Zuboff, Shoshana. "New Worlds of Computer-Mediated Work," Harvard Business Review, Vol. 60, No. 5, 1982, pp. 142-152.